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THE KAMPALA DOCUMENT
Towards a Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa

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The Kampala Document: Towards a Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa emerged from a gathering in 1991 that was convened at the initiative of the Africa Leadership Forum. The Forum, a non-governmental organization involving former heads of state and prominent Africans from many countries, is headed by Olusegun Obasanjo. The Kampala Forum, in May 1991, was also co-sponsored by the secretariats of the Organization of African Unity and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa.

The document published here is an abridgement of the report published by the Africa Leadership Forum. The wording is taken directly from the original. Omitted words or phrases are indicated in the text by ...; transitional phrases inserted by the editor for clarity are set off by brackets.

The full version of The Kampala Document was published by the Africa Leadership Forum, P.O. Box 2286, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria or 821 U.N. Plaza, 7th floor, New York, NY 10017.

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In Kampala, Uganda on May 19-22, 1991, over 500 African leaders, including a number of former and current heads of state, gathered for discussion on the continent's problems. Initiated by the independent African Leadership Forum, the conference was co-sponsored by the Organization of African Unity and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. The Kampala Document was issued at the end of the conference.

General Principles

Every African state is sovereign. Every state respects the rights inherent in the territorial integrity and political independence of all other African states.

The security, stability and development of every African country is inseparably linked with those of other African countries. Consequently, instability in one African country reduces the stability of all other African countries.

The erosion of security and stability in Africa is one of the major causes of its continuing crises and one of the principal impediments to the creation of a sound economy and effective intra- and inter-African cooperation.

The interdependence of African States and the link between their security, stability and development demand a common African agenda ... Africa cannot make any significant progress on any other front without creating collectively a lasting solution to its problems of security and stability.

A Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA) should be launched to provide a comprehensive framework for Africa's security and stability and measures for accelerated continental economic integration for socioeconomic transformation. CSSDCA shall encompass four major areas henceforth called calabashes: security, stability, development and cooperation.

A new order embodied in the framework of CSSDCA must be created [to] guide the conduct of governance in individual African states as well as the imperatives of intra-African and inter-African relations. The implementation of the new order should seek an active partnership and positive involvement of the rest of the world.

The fulfillment in good faith of all the CSSDCA principles must be adhered to by all participating states within the context of any other obligations each participating member may have under international law.

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Security Calabash

The concept of security goes beyond military considerations. [It] must be construed in terms of the security of the individual citizen to live in peace with access to basic necessities of life while fully participating in the affairs of his/her society in freedom and enjoying all fundamental human rights.

Lack of democracy in which people freely participate in government, denial of personal liberties, abuse of religion, precedence given to military expenditures over other sectors of national life and the lack of proper administrative machinery for the control and management of public funds are some of the deep-rooted causes of insecurity.

[Key principles]:

• Conflict prevention and containment: greater attention should be paid to measures to prevent or contain crisis before an eruption into violence confrontation;

• Internal and external security for Africa must derive from a framework of common and collective continental security;

• African governments must individually and collectively be guided by the principle of good neighborliness and a peaceful resolution of conflicts;

• National and continental self-reliance in certain strategic areas covering both military and non-military including popular participation in national defence, is vital for Africa's security. The security of the African people, their land and property and their states as a whole is an absolute necessity for stability, development and cooperation in Africa. ...

Security must be the first pillar of the CSSDCA process because of the organic links between the security of all African states as a whole and the security of each of them, arising from their common history, culture, geography and destiny ...

While giving due recognition to the provisions of the United Nations and Organization of African Unity Charters with respect to the principles of good neighborliness and noninterference in the internal affairs of states, [there is] an increasing concern over domestic conditions pertaining to threat to personal and collective security and gross violation of basic human rights. The CSSDCA must aim at promoting and strengthening this welcome development to enable African countries to cooperate in ensuring the security of Africans at all levels. ...

[Policy measures:]

Mechanisms for Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration:
There is, indeed, the urgent requirement to prevent conflicts and disputes from escalating into armed hostilities. This calls for the strengthening of conflict resolution mechanisms for negotiation, mediation, conciliation and arbitration at the governmental, political and diplomatic levels ... In conformity with African tradition, the emphasis should be put on timely mediation and reconciliation.

Peace-keeping operations:
Building on the limited experiences of Africa and cumulative lessons of the United Nations' operations, and taking measures that would avoid the mistakes which have been committed in such instances, Africa under CSSDCA, should institute a continental peace-keeping machinery as an important instrument for the preservation of peace in instances which potentially or actually threaten the security of African state(s) or the continent as a whole. Such arrangements, however, should not preclude United Nations peace-keeping operations where necessary. ...

Confidence building measures:
... Confidence building measures between African countries are called for under the CSSDCA process to cover, inter alia, exchange of information on troop locations and movements; joint military training; joint military manoeuvres; joint naval patrols; joint studies and seminars on sub-regional, regional and continental security issues.

Non-aggression pacts:
A more enhanced policy measure for continental security requires a non-aggression treaty among all African countries under the CSSDCA process, along the model of a similar treaty that already exists between the member states of ECOWAS. The non-aggression treaty among African countries should also incorporate a commitment to defend each other in the event of external military aggression.

Lowering of military expenditures:
The undertakings involving all the security preventive measures outlined above should ... pave the way for a collective process of lowering military expenditures in Africa under the CSSDCA process. Overall reduction of military expenditures by participating member states should involve actual reductions in ceilings of manpower and reduced expenditures on military hardware. Consideration should also be given to collective understanding of the type of military equipment justifiable for procurement or manufacture by African countries. ...

Africa's Elders Council for Peace:
To move Africa from the confinement of purely reacting to events, ... , an African Peace Council should be formed ... The African Peace Council under CSSDCA, should be preeminently comprised of the most distinguished personalities and African elder statesmen. The Council must be empowered under the CSSDCA and given discretion to effect a measure of intervention in national security problems of participating member states and determine appropriate actions which may involve reconciliation and mediation or recommendation of deployment of African peace-keeping operations or both. The Council should operate under the OAU framework.

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Stability Calabash

[Key principles:]

• Adherence to the rule of law: Governments will have to vigorously follow the provisions of laws or codes legislated by an assembly of freely elected representatives. No one can be exempt from accounting for his conduct when a law is breached.

• Popular participation in governance: Active and genuine participation of the citizens of every country in the governance of public affairs has to be fostered.

• Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms: Promoting and protecting the rights and freedoms of the citizens of member states will be deemed vital.

• The establishment of political bodies: Political organizations should not be created on religious, ethnic, regional or racial basis and considerations and these should not be exploited by leaders.

• Transparency in public policy making: Decisions relating to governance of public affairs should be freely discussed and choices assessed so that the public will be mindful of the risks and rewards associated with any action of government.

• Religious fundamentalism, no matter from whatever religion, fosters instability. Governments must encourage the principle of separation of State and religion. Religion must remain a personal affair.

[Policy measures:]

Freely promulgated constitution with Bill of Rights provisions:
Every state should have a constitution that is promulgated after thorough national debate and adopted by an assembly of freely elected representatives of the people. Such a Constitution should contain a Bill of Rights.

Existence of plural political structures:
Every country would ensure that there is no hindrance to alternative ideas, institutions and leaders competing for public support. In this case of multiparty pluralism, this principle requires that every participating member should ensure the separation of party from the state.

Limitation to the tenures of elected political leaders:
There should be periodic renewal of the mandate of political leaders. ... The tenure of elected leaders in various branches of government should be constitutionally limited to a given number of years.

Security of tenure for officers in the Judiciary:
Not only should the actions of the officers of the bench be unfettered by the legislative and executive branches of government, but their tenure should be guaranteed and provided for in the national constitutions. Decisions relating to the removal of officers from the bench should be exercised by a Judicial Commission. Independence of the judiciary must be effected through an inviolate tenure of offices, and through stable emoluments guaranteed by an act of parliament.

Annual publication of records of compliance with human rights instruments:
To promote vigorous observance by African Governments of the various international legal instruments to which they would subscribe or have subscribed, it would be essential that the performance of governments be monitored. In addition to whatever organs individual governments may establish for this purpose, the charter and mandate of the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (ACHPR) should be expanded for ACHPR to undertake an annual assessment of human rights record of each African country and publish its findings. The monitoring role prescribed for the ACHPR is not intended to be exercised only in situations of human rights violations but as an annual routine ... The establishment of an African Court of Justice on Human Rights within the framework of ACHPR is recommended. The court will adjudicate between governments and people's rights. ACHPR should be funded separately drawing upon the funds of international organizations and other independent sources.

Legal instruments for protection and promotion of human rights:
An important element in fostering stability is to protect and promote human rights of individual citizens. This not only assures the individual of his/her rights and dignity but also enables him to actualize his/her full potential which itself is necessary for socioeconomic development. Therefore, every participating state would be required to sign, ratify and implement African and other relevant international legal instruments in the field of human rights.

Establishment and protection of organs for monitoring accountability:
... These may include boards of audits for public expenditure, code of conduct bureau for public officials and ombudsman. Once established, these institutions should be given adequate protection through measures that enable independent financing and guarantee tenures for the officers of the institutions.

Independence of financing for national institutions of adjudication and accountability:
The financing of organs of adjudication and accountability (courts, audit boards, code of conduct bureaus or ombudsman) should be paid from consolidated revenue funds not subject to arbitrary interference by executive fiat.

Independence of the Civil Service:
An independent Civil Service having a guaranteed security of tenure, salary and pension with members nominated on professional grounds by an independent Civil Service Commission. ...

Right to own property:
A constitution approved by a freely elected legislature must guarantee the individual right to own property and the right to enjoy societies' socioeconomic and cultural benefits.

Free and fair elections:
The national constitution should stipulate inter alia that the citizens of participating members have the right to participate in free and fair elections in their countries through an election based on a secret ballot and universal adult suffrage. By the same token, every citizen of a participating member state has the right to stand for election of public office and participate in the affairs of the state. The presence of international observers in national elections is desirable as it will enhance the credibility of the election process and results.

Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention:
No citizen should be subject to arbitrary arrest or detention without trial or subject to trial and other forms of human or cruel treatment. Provisions for habeas mandamus and habeas corpus should be made in national codes or laws. Legal aid services for those who cannot provide legal services for themselves should be funded from public revenue. All participating African countries should remove from their statute books all laws authorizing detention without trial.

The status of women:
All the existing laws that discriminate against women should be abrogated and juridical instruments and mechanisms that will guarantee and preserve the rights of women should be adopted. The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women should be ratified by and applied in all African countries.

Youth and education:
The future of Africa will be in the hands of the youth of today. Educational systems should incorporate in their curricula teaching in African values, cultures, history, philosophy, etc. Research in African humanities should be given no less attention than the pursuit of science and technology. In the face of escalating education costs, strategies should be devised to ensure the acquisition of basic education by all youth. Education is a prerequisite to the full and effective participation of people in the democratic process and all efforts should be made to eliminate illiteracy.

Proportional representation:
[To promote] maximum participation of all groups in their Government, the principle of proportional representation should be adopted, taken into consideration the peculiar situation of each country. The principle of proportional representation should be applied for legislative elections. To foster stability in governance of national affairs, governments should ensure that in making appointments, due regard is given to equitable representation at the central, regional and local levels.

National borders:
To restore and maintain stability along national borders, bilateral non-aggression treaties should be concluded and ratified by each African nation separately with each of its border neighbors.

Trade union rights:
In order to ensure industrial peace and harmony which is a prerequisite for economic growth and development all governments should respect trade union rights in accordance with ILO conventions and recommendations.

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Development Calabash

[Key principles:]

• Development based on self-reliance is the only viable basis -- in Africa's circumstances -- for the internalization of a self-sustaining economic growth on the continent.

• Rapid physical and economic integration of the African continent is a sine qua non to Africa's economic survival in the 21st century and prospects for socioeconomic transformation and competitiveness with the rest of the world.

• Reliance on commodity production solely for export has been one of the major causes of Africa's economic crisis. Effective diversification both horizontally in terms of broadening the production base and vertically with respect to processing and marketing is imperative for the socioeconomic transformation of the African economies.

• Popular participation and equal opportunity and access must be promoted and sustained as a crucial basis for the realization of Africa's development objectives and strategies.

• In order to foster effective domestic partnership in development, leaders and the governed should have recognizable responsibility for various aspects of development. The Leaders should provide the vision that should guide development.

The development 'calabash' is the raison d'etre for the CSSDCA process. Collective continental policy measures must aim at a development process that epitomizes the African person. ... CSSDCA should create a truly people-centered development.

Africa's development policy measures must be based in the short-term on Africa's immediate struggle for survival in order to address the more excruciating long-term imperatives of socioeconomic transformation. Out of pragmatic necessity, the CSSDCA process should only address limited but key development issues to ensure a realistic chance of success.

[Policy measures:]

Human resources development:
People are both the means and the desired end of the benefits of development. Africa's development is principally hampered by inadequate human capabilities. ... The CSSDCA process should ... embody the following major priorities on a collective continental basis ...

• The adoption of programs aimed at eliminating illiteracy across the continent by the year 2000.

• Increase in the allocation of financial resources to education and training by diverting a significant proportion of such resources now devoted to military expenditures to education.

• Adoption of national systems of meritocracy. In addition, appropriate levels of incentive and compensation for professionals and African civil servants must be introduced, to assist in curbing the brain-drain from Africa.

• Introduction of science and technology at the early years of education should be encouraged.

• Measures to achieve an overall improvement in the quality of education should be implemented and monitoring systems to ensure continuity in the enhanced quality of education must be developed.

• The adoption of clear policies of preference for using African talent thereby promoting the development of a critical mass of professionals to replace the expatriate technical skills that currently cost Africa in excess of US$4 billion annually.

• Promotion of vocational and business training and management skills.

• Promoting the use of and support for existing and new regional and subregional institutions that serve as centers of excellence.

• Establishment of human resources skills bank for Africa for use in facilitating resource sharing. ...

• Harmonization of the continent's educational policies to improve the quality and relevance of education at all levels.

• Pool of resources for specialized training and expansion of student exchange programs especially for language training; countries with under-utilized universities should offer opportunities to nationals of other countries at a nominal cost.

Capacity building and development:
Collective and coordinated continental policy measures in capacity-building must first target development of capabilities in the area of governance; the nurturing and development of those with leadership potential; measures to reverse the decline and enhance the efficiency of government administration in Africa ...

Special policy measures under CSSDCA must be targeted towards a comprehensive development of African entrepreneurial capabilities. The strategy on entrepreneurial development should be buttressed by active government encouragement and support covering extensive exchange of visits by entrepreneurs and some form of technical cooperation among African Countries.

Focus on entrepreneurial development must go hand in hand with deliberate policy measures for the development of endogenous institutional capabilities especially technical and other forms of private consultancies. Relevant continental professional associations must be strengthened. In this regard, ... National consultants should be included in any assignment involving [continental or other consultants].

Major changes must be instituted to ensure accountability and the pursuit of modern systems of management. Among other measures to be instituted should include a system of orienting leaders at ministerial and senior levels and adoption of the African Charter for Popular Participation in Development.

Economic Transformation of Africa:
There is a need for a complete restructuring of African economies to ensure in the long run a judicious combination of diversified agriculture together with industrialization ...

Viable development in the long run must depend increasingly on the application of science and technology. Schools and institutions of learning should be made to place more emphasis on science-related subjects. Moreover ... African countries should initiate programs and policies for the development of indigenous technology. ...

African countries should adopt liberal economic policies that will attract capital, a factor of production in which African states are enormously deficient. While encouraging privatization and divesting government of equity in public enterprises, the first option must be given to indigenous African entrepreneurs. ...

If Africa is to achieve a rate of growth that fosters economic transformation, it will be necessary to adopt those policies and measures that, firstly, harness the continent's own resources, and, secondly, provide incentive to attract investment both local and external. Specific policies such as an international reporting system on capital flight ... must be put in place. ...

Finance resource mobilization:
The CSSDCA process must, as a top priority, seek to mobilize financial resources for Africa's socio-economic development and cooperation through, inter alia, advancing a collective continental position on Africa's crippling external debt. ...

Increased efforts at mobilization of domestic resources should involve control of excessive consumption and adoption of measures to promote domestic savings.

Africa's financial mobilization process should also seek collective measures toward an operational common ground between IMF/IBRD supported Structural Adjustment Programs in Africa and AAF-SAP as adopted by African leaders. These policy measures must seek changes in IMF's lending conditionalities (to Africa) that must both achieve large net balance of payments support and a measure of greater independent policy by African governments.

Appropriate strategies must be adopted for collective comprehensive policy measures to reverse the net outflow of financial resources from Africa based on a moratorium that must be secured on external debt and improved arrangements with multinational lending agencies.

Promotion of joint projects by two participating members or more for funding from external/internal sources is a more practical measure in resource mobilization. The lending policies of the African Development Bank for joint projects by different sovereign states should be reviewed to devise a mechanism for substantial lending to such projects.

The combined effect of the various policy measures on financial mobilization should be geared to the restoration of Africa's import capacity for the necessary short-term recovery and development of domestic factor input for long-term socioeconomic transformation.

Agricultural development for food self-sufficiency:
The transformation of the agricultural sector by increasing food productivity and food self-sufficiency with a view to turning Africa into a food exporter is key to Africa's socioeconomic development. The strategy for the attainment of this goal ... should make it possible for Africa to be self-sustaining on food requirements in both the short term and the long run.

This strategy is in keeping with the Lagos Plan of Action and the African Priority Programme for Economic Recovery. We therefore call for their full and effective implementation.

In addition, we recommend the following:

• Africa should pool together some existing agriculture research centers and mobilize the best available talents for such centers in a collective coordinated research for a "green revolution' in the continent.

• Other policy measures should include removal of all domestic non-sanitary restrictions to internal food marketing.

• Consider removal of all duties on some priority food items for intra-African trade under proper rules of origin.

• Discourage imports from non-African countries of food items available in Africa.

• Launch an African commodity exchange with emphasis on food items. All these measures should aim at expanding agriculture output to a minimum target of 4 per cent a year.

• Governments should establish food and nutrition policy to ensure that food and nutrition considerations are made explicit objectives in agriculture and rural development projects;

• Adopt the food basket concept of using traditional foods in local communities to formulate balanced diets;

• Establish systems of production, processing, distribution and marketing of traditional foods;

• Embark on land reform (where this is not yet in place) to ensure that land is within the reach of the ordinary person ... ;

• Mobilize women especially in the rural areas and ensure that at least one-third of a country's technical assistance to small farmers goes to women. Mobilization should also take into consideration the role of NGOs who in collaboration with small farmers could design, implement and concretise literacy programs that are production-oriented;

• Private investment in agriculture should be encouraged. This should be aimed at providing profitable opportunities in farming and incentives in the production of local agricultural inputs to satisfy domestic consumption as well as export needs;

• While mechanized farming should be undertaken for export purposes, it should not be at the expense of rural farming.

To achieve these agricultural objectives, arrest environmental degradation and ensure increased production for sustainable development Africa Governments should formulate sound policies for water resources planing and development.

Energy development:
Next to agriculture and food self-sufficiency, implementation of policies by Africa on energy self-reliance are essential ... Collective continental efforts under CSSDCA must concentrate on pooling human talents and material resources for research on alternative sources of energy, especially solar energy. ...

Priority in alternative energy policies must be directed towards sources that address the serious shortage of firewood for an estimated 55 million people in Africa in order to alleviate worsening environment problems. Effective policy measures to address this problem should include rural electrification. Major areas to power Africa's socioeconomic transformation will remain hydropower and hydrocarbons.

Under CSSDCA, joint development initiatives should be undertaken to cover (a) interstate coordination and implementation of hydro schemes ... and (b) expansion of explorations and development operations for hydrocarbons through joint ownership, bearing in mind that large scale development of hydrocarbons in other developing regions has largely been brought about by state supported efforts.

Industrial development:
The CSSDCA process should urgently arrest the ongoing de-industrialization in Africa, particularly under orthodox Structural Adjustment Programs. Intermediate and capital goods industries should be encouraged through multinational projects, and small to medium-scale industrial enterprises should be promoted vigorously with the provision of credit and technical support.

The current excessive import dependence of African industries must be eliminated through a shift of industrial strategy to domestic resource-based manufacturing in order to enhance industrial value-added in Africa. There should also be a shift in the focus of African industries to processing of raw material for exports and manufacturing to meet basic domestic needs for food, drugs, educational materials, housing, transport and water treatment chemicals. Mineral industries should be encouraged through sub-regional and regional cooperation. All these require the pooling of limited national capital, technologies and technical expertise as well as the pragmatic use of planning at national, sub-regional and regional levels.

Trade Development:
Intra-African trade is the most important component in the necessary structuralist integration of Africa economies.

Collective policy measures should target expanded intra-African trade in food and agricultural commodities including raw materials, through an accelerated implementation of special trade preferences. A second set of collective policy measures should create special arrangements for intra-African trade expansion linked to the establishment of some specific core and strategic industries. ...

Transport and Communications:
The CSSDCA process should serve as a vehicle for accelerating within specifically stipulated targets the implementation of the Second Transport and Communication Decade for Africa. A long term policy strategy under CSSDCA should aim at the development of multi-modal transportation capable of sustaining the movement of a large volume of intra-African economic activities. The viability of this effort aimed largely at railroad development must be based on its direct linkage with the establishment or expansion of core industries and the use of Africa's technical capabilities. Joint coastal shipping operations should be established. Air transportation should regroup carriers in Africa and expanded traffic rights should be negotiated and implemented within the CSSDCA.

Population and Environment:
In recognition of the link between population expansion and the environment, a set of policy measures must simultaneously target both and proceed on other environmental problems: consideration of harmonized law on minimum age of 18 for female and 21 for male before marriage; putting a ceiling on number of children per mother; law authorizing property ownership for women and long term national schemes for old age support.

A second set of policy measures under CSSDCA should set targets for reforestation, diversified sources of energy, regulation of all activities in logging in Africa; measures for safe disposal of waste and non-disposal of toxic waste from outside the continent; a development pattern that is environmentally sensitive; and, a long term strategy coordinated with United Nations Environmental Programme to deal with Africa's environmental problems.

Science and technology:
Science and technology must be promoted to facilitate full exploitation of resources by optimising on the use of existing institutions (both subregional and national). Financial support for this worthy cause should be increased. Access to the exploitation of resources should be open to both the public and African private sector with the Government playing a regulatory and not a restrictive role that stifles African entrepreneurship and initiative ... Views of the Business Community should be solicited on how obstacles could be overcome for every country.

Women in development:
Africa's development in all aspects cannot be assured without the full involvement of women in decision-making processes at all levels and their full access to all factors of production (land, labor, capital). This calls for appropriate policies and implementation of strategies at the national, institutional and regional levels. ... Given the central role of women in food and agriculture all practical measures should be taken to ensure their equal access to technologies that can alleviate their workload and enhance their productivity.

In addition to access to land, women should be given land rights by law so as to improve their access to credit and other services.

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Cooperation Calabash

Africa should proceed along the three tiers of cooperation:

1. Among African countries - using bilateral and multilateral agreements and the existing subregional economic groupings as building blocks towards the achievement of an African Economic Community;
2. South-South cooperation ...; and
3. North-South cooperation.

[Key principles:]

• Economic integration: African countries cannot expect to compete or develop individually, in the evolving international economic system dominated by regional economic blocs. Economic integration should be intensified and a shortened timetable for the African Economic Community should be agreed upon. Economic integration should be fostered by encouragement of increased interaction by people through removal of restrictions for temporary entrance and exit by Africans from and to any other African country.

• Joint development of common natural resources: African countries will need to collectively act in utilizing such resources as waterways, forests, coastal zones and the management of environment.

• Interdependence: African countries must seek to explore opportunities for beneficial cooperative relations with other developing and industrialized nations. There is no contradiction between the need for intensified cooperation between African and non-African countries and the principle for self-reliant and self-sustained development.

• Supranationality: As African countries foster cooperation and integration, the need for devolving certain key responsibilities to continental institutions would be imperative. ...

[Policy measures:]

Trade and Production:
Improvement of a variety of trade-related facilities such as transport, communications and payments arrangements are keys to enhanced intra-African trade. At the same time, there is need for African countries to deliberately seek and promote trade opportunities among themselves. ...

Joint ventures:
The main focus of joint ventures should be increased production ... African countries should cooperatively stress the production of key components of medium and high technology goods taking into account economies of scale. Such joint ventures should build on comparative endowment of African countries. Thus, the CSSDCA process should promote cooperation in joint production by matching countries that have natural resource endowments with those that have financial capital or other inputs. The private sector should assume the lead role in promoting joint ventures while the public sector assumes the role of facilitator.

Financing regional cooperation programs:
Development of policies on financing cooperation and integration should be given special attention. Innovative ways of raising resources for cooperation and integration programs and projects have to be found, given ... the paucity of intra-African savings and investments and donor preference for bilateral cooperation. African countries should set up a fund financed by a certain percentage of surcharges from the imports of individual countries. This approach will need to be implemented alongside arrangement for resources from multilateral financial institutions.

Selecting lead countries to promote cooperation projects:
An important element in accelerating the cooperation process is the identification, development and management of cooperation projects. Given the time that cooperation projects are fully established and independent management installed, a lead country should be designated for promoting the project. That way, other member states can have recognized focal points to which all issues pertaining to the project are directed. The lead country, then, becomes a catalyst for bringing a project to fruition ...

Focal points should be established in various African countries to promote cooperation and integration. In particular priority consideration should be given to establishing ministries of cooperation and integration. The participation of non-governmental organizations in promoting cooperation should also be encouraged.

Joint development of infrastructures:
To accelerate cooperation and economic integration among African countries, there should be intensified efforts at common development among African countries, of such infrastructurual facilities as railways, roads, air and river transport as well as energy resources.

Accelerating integration among African countries:
The Final Act of Lagos endorsed the approach of phased continental economic integration, with the sub-regional economic groupings as the building blocs. Presently, all the sub-regional groups in Africa now have an economic group, though some countries do not, as yet, belong to any of these groups. The signing of the treaty establishing the African Economic Community would be a watershed event. But more important would be the policy mechanisms which are designed to give effect to the treaty as a framework for African wide cooperation.

The prospects for all the development policy measures in every sector in Africa and the whole CSSDCA process will critically be determined by the degree of collective effort towards continental integration. ... A structuralist model of continental integration should be adopted based on a minimum timetable for an African Economic Community. Continental Integration through strictly subregional models should be reviewed to allow for more innovative measures and strategy.

Promoting and accelerating integration among African countries would depend crucially on the support and commitment of African countries. Equally important, however, is the need to encourage and promote active involvement in the integration process of various socioeconomic factors such as trade unions, chambers of commerce, women, youth associations as well as other professional associations. These professional associations should be a vanguard force in cooperation, in standards, in training and research and civil liberties, as well as in other areas. The operations of professional associations, entrepreneurs and research scientists must not be restricted by national borders. Free movement of persons must be encouraged bilaterally, subregionally and continentally. More importantly, the selection of personnel of the secretariat of African Economic Communities should be based on merit to ensure the highest calibre of such personnel.

Rationalization of existing intergovernmental organizations:
Given the multiplicity of intergovernmental organizations in the field of cooperation and integration in Africa, it is vital that their numbers be reduced. Such a step would not only reduce the expenditures of member states for such organizations, but would also enable governments to devote more attention to the IGOs that would remain. The few IGOs should then be redesigned to render more effective services to member States.

South-South (African and other developing countries) cooperation:
There is considerable scope for promoting cooperation between African and other developing countries. The Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP) already serves as a framework for accelerating South-South trade. African countries should identify specific areas of benefit in the GSTP in the context of the continents' structural weaknesses.

African countries should encourage foreign investments from other developing countries which can contribute to enhancing their production and exports. Such investments should emphasize technology transfer arrangements and may be organized through licensing arrangements, franchising and joint ventures. Investments should be targeted at producing not only consumer goods but also intermediate and capital goods.

Cooperation between Africa and the Industrialized countries: Cooperation between Africa and the industrialized countries would continue to be an important source of acquiring financial and industrial capital for the socioeconomic development of Africa. The objective of these cooperation arrangements should be to remove the basic structural weaknesses of the African economies. Seeking to elevate Africa from its status of exporter of raw materials to producer of manufactured and other processed products should be the key consideration in any cooperation arrangements with the industrialized nations. Very importantly, there is need to promote cooperative arrangements in the areas of science and technology, food and agriculture, environment and energy.

International policy initiatives, such as the Global Coalition for Africa and others, designed to promote development and cooperation should include significant African participation in decision-making and management ...

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